FAA AIM 4-5-1 레이더

b. Limitations

1. It is very important for the aviation community to recognize the fact that there are limitations to radar service and that ATC controllers may not always be able to issue traffic advisories concerning aircraft which are not under ATC control and cannot be seen on radar. (See FIG 4−5−1.)

(a) The characteristics of radio waves are such that they normally travel in a continuous straight line unless they are:

 (1) “Bent” by abnormal atmospheric phenomena such as temperature inversions;

 (2) Reflected or attenuated by dense objects such as heavy clouds, precipitation, ground obstacles, mountains, etc.; or

 (3) Screened by high terrain features.

(b) The bending of radar pulses, often called anomalous propagation or ducting, may cause many extraneous blips to appear on the radar operator’s display if the beam has been bent toward the ground or may decrease the detection range if the wave is bent upward. It is difficult to solve the effects of anomalous propagation, but using beacon radar and electronically eliminating stationary and slow moving targets by a method called moving target indicator (MTI) usually negate the problem.

(c) Radar energy that strikes dense objects will be reflected and displayed on the operator’s scope thereby blocking out aircraft at the same range and greatly weakening or completely eliminating the display of targets at a greater range. Again, radar beacon and MTI are very effectively used to combat ground clutter and weather phenomena, and a method of circularly polarizing the radar beam will eliminate some weather returns. A negative characteristic of MTI is that an aircraft flying a speed that coincides with the canceling signal of the MTI (tangential or “blind” speed) may not be displayed to the radar controller.

(d) Relatively low altitude aircraft will not be seen if they are screened by mountains or are below the radar beam due to earth curvature. The historical solution to screening has been the installation of strategically placed multiple radars, which has been done in some areas, but ADS−B now provides ATC surveillance in some areas with challenging terrain where multiple radar installations would be impractical.

(e) There are several other factors which affect radar control. The amount of reflective surface of an aircraft will determine the size of the radar return. Therefore, a small light airplane or a sleek jet fighter will be more difficult to see on primary radar than a large commercial jet or military bomber. Here again, the use of transponder or ADS−B equipment is invaluable. In addition, all FAA ATC facilities display automatically reported altitude information to the controller from appropriately equipped aircraft.

(f) At some locations within the ATC en route environment, secondary−radar−only (no primary radar) gap filler radar systems are used to give lower altitude radar coverage between two larger radar systems, each of which provides both primary and secondary radar coverage. ADS−B serves this same role, supplementing both primary and secondary radar. In those geographical areas served by secondary radar only or ADS−B, aircraft without either transponders or ADS−B equipment cannot be provided with radar service. Additionally, transponder or ADS−B equipped aircraft cannot be provided with radar advisories concerning primary targets and ATC radar−derived weather. REFERENCE− Pilot/Controller Glossary Term− Radar.

(g) With regard to air traffic radar reception, wind turbines generally do not affect the quality of air traffic surveillance radar returns for transponder and ADS−B Out equipped aircraft. Air traffic interference issues apply to the search radar and Non−Transponder/Non−ADS−B Out equipped aircraft. NOTE− Generally, one or two wind turbines don’t present a significant radar reception loss. A rule of thumb is three (3) or more turbines constitute a wind turbine farm and thus negatively affect the search radar product.

 (1) Detection loss in the area of a wind turbine farm is substantial. In extreme circumstances, this can extend for more than 1.0 nautical mile (NM) horizontally around the nearest turbine and at all altitudes above the wind turbine farm. (See FIG 4−5−2.)

NOTE−

All aircraft should comply with 14 CFR §91.119(c) “…aircraft may not be operated closer than 500 feet to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure.”

 (2) To avoid interference Non−Transponder/Non−ADS−B Out equipped aircraft should avoid flight within 1.0 NM horizontally, at all altitudes, from the wind turbine farms.

 (3) Because detection loss near and above wind turbine farms for search−only targets causes dropped tracks, erroneous tracks, and can result in loss of separation, it is imperative that Non−Transponder/Non−ADS−B Out equipped aircraft operate at the proper VFR altitudes per hemispheric rule and utilize see−and−avoid techniques.

 (4) Pilots should be aware that air traffic controllers cannot provide separation from Non−Transponder/Non−ADS−B Out equipped aircraft in the vicinity of wind turbine farms. See−and−avoid is the pilot’s responsibility, as these non−equipped aircraft may not appear on radar and will not appear on the Traffic Information Services−Broadcast (TIS−B).

(h) The controller’s ability to advise a pilot flying on instruments or in visual conditions of the aircraft’s proximity to another aircraft will be limited if the unknown aircraft is not observed on radar, if no flight plan information is available, or if the volume of traffic and workload prevent issuing traffic information. The controller’s first priority is given to establishing vertical, lateral, or longitudinal separation between aircraft flying IFR under the control of ATC.

c. FAA radar units operate continuously at the locations shown in the Chart Supplement U.S., and their services are available to all pilots, both civil and military. Contact the associated FAA control tower or ARTCC on any frequency guarded for initial instructions, or in an emergency, any FAA facility for information on the nearest radar service.